**Detail from The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch, 1490-1500.** Wikimedia

Sexuality in the Middle Ages

If we hazard a look at the medieval era, we discover a history of sexuality that is far more multilayered than we might at first have imagined. While the Christian church sought to extend its influence into private bedchambers, ‘lascivious’ attitudes and practices stood in the way of its ambitions.

Valérie Lüthi

Valérie Lüthi is a historian and Germanist, specializing in the Middle Ages and the 20th century

The long period between antiquity and the modern era – commonly referred to in oversimplified terms as ‘the Middle Ages’ – gave birth to a broad spectrum of sexual ideas, norms and practices. Yet, despite the wide range of formative influences, it is not possible to tell the story of medieval sexuality without mentioning religion – in this case, Christianity. It starts with the Biblical creation narrative: with Adam and Eve, the first man and woman. The story of ‘the Fall’, or original sin, set the tone for what was to follow: women became ‘seductresses’ and men ‘the seduced’. This interpretation of Eve as temptress had serious repercussions for the image of women in general by portraying them as a ‘weak’ yet at the same time ‘seductive’ sex.

Eve tempting Adam to take a bite of the apple: The Fall of Man by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1532. — **Eve tempting Adam to take a bite of the apple: *The Fall of Man* by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1532.** Wikimedia

The female body became synonymous with seduction and the involvement of magic was sometimes hinted at: The Love Spell, Master of the Lower Rhine, 15th century. — **The female body became synonymous with seduction and the involvement of magic was sometimes hinted at: *The Love Spell*, Master of the Lower Rhine, 15th century.** Wikimedia

Adam, on the other hand, standing for all men, casts reason and judgement (Latin: ‘ratio’) aside and allows himself to be seduced. A reading that would also have long-lasting implications, with women portrayed as tempting men into acting irrationally and men depicted as being foolish enough to let this happen. This theme is also addressed in the medieval legend of Aristotle and Phyllis: Aristotle, tutor to Alexander the Great, warns his pupil not to become distracted by the beautiful Phyllis. Disgruntled by this cautionary piece of advice, Phyllis decides to humiliate Aristotle. She seduces the philosopher, who falls for her charms and allows himself to be ridden by her like a horse. Alexander, looking on, recognises the great thinker’s weakness in the face of ‘feminine wiles’. The end of the story reeks of double standards: it both confirms Aristotle's warning about the power of love to distract while also demonstrating Phyllis’s extraordinary intelligence and agency.

**Phyllis and Aristotle pictured in a manuscript, ca. 1486-1520.** Augsburg, Staats- und Stadtbibliothek

This tale shows that women in the Middle Ages were seen not simply as passive objects to be lusted after, but also as actors with agency, capable of influencing the world around them. Aristotle, on the other hand, although regarded as the embodiment of wisdom and rationality, proves himself to be susceptible to seduction by Phyllis. His character is meant to demonstrate that even the smartest of men can be overcome by their passions and commit ‘acts of foolishness’.

Chastity v. lust – an inevitable struggle?

Christian dogma had other effects in addition to shaping gender roles: it idealised the virtue of ‘castitas’, i.e. chastity, and condemned the vice of ‘luxuria’, i.e. lust. Nuns and monks served as examples of a life lived in chastity, and the same ideal was extolled in the biographies recounting the lives of the saints – especially so with female saints. In this way, the female body became endowed with seemingly contradictory qualities: there was the negative association with seduction on the one hand and the positive association with abstinence on the other – depending on how the respective behaviour was judged: as sinful or virtuous.

Personified by a woman: The Allegory of Lust by Pisanello, ca. 1426, ... — **Personified by a woman: an allegory of lust by Pisanello, ca. 1426, ...** Wikimedia

...but also the Allegory of Chastity by Hans Memling, 1475. — **...but also the allegory of chastity by Hans Memling, 1475.** Wikimedia

However, the idealisation of chastity contained an existential dilemma: the desired continuation and growth of the Christian community was unavoidably dependent on the biological aspect of procreation. A solution then emerged based on the argument ‘if you can’t prevent it altogether, regulate it’.

If you must have sex, please stick to the rules!

As the Church began consolidating its power, reaching a peak during the High Middle Ages, we start to come across increasingly detailed rules pertaining to the act of sexual intercourse. First and foremost, sexual relations were permitted only within marriage, which had been elevated to the status of a sacrament in the 12th century, meaning it had to be performed by a priest. In other words, from that point on, all marriages required the Church’s blessing.

**Wedding of Louis X. of France and Clementia of Hungary in 1315. Miniature, late 14th century.** Oxford, Bodleian Library

Moreover, the sexual act was to be restricted to the marital bed – on no account should it take place on the kitchen table, which was for eating, or in the stable, ‘like cattle’. This mention of livestock leads us neatly to the next imperative: that of position. ‘Doggy style’ (i.e. ‘like cattle’) was not acceptable, and neither was the woman playing an ‘active’ role (i.e. on top of the man). After all, only the man was supposed to be the active one. Consequently, solely the ‘missionary position’, with the woman underneath the man and the two facing each other ‘as humans do’, was allowed.

**Even in the marital bed, one had to beware of devilish desires, which is why theologians issued strict rules for sexual relations between man and wife.** Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin

Naturally, the ‘when’ was also defined: not on Church holy days – when people should have things other than procreating on their mind. This extended to the point where, if one were to adhere strictly to these guidelines, only two to five days a month were left for married couples to have sex. And they must never forget that sex was purely for reproductive purposes – remember the continuation of the faith dilemma? And so, all other orifices and practices in which the sperm does not end up in the womb were ruled out as ‘unnatural’. Although several things were already known about the process of conception back then, there was a lack of agreement as to whether the female components played a role alongside the male components.

Sexual norms and their consequences

Issuing prohibitions, norms and rules was the Church’s way of attempting to regulate the sexuality of the faithful – which it sought to do at both the individual and collective level. Consequently, the construct of ‘normal’ sexuality was soon followed by the notion of practices labelled ‘abnormal’ ‒ or ‘unnatural’, the phrase used in those days. These attempts at standardisation had particularly dramatic consequences for homosexuality. While still practiced relatively openly in ancient times, Christianity condemned it as ‘unnatural’.

**Moralising depiction of homosexuality in a bible, 1225.** ÖNB, Cod. 2554, fol. 2r

Homosexual practices were an affront to the ‘acceptable’ norm. It is noticeable that female homosexuality came in for much less criticism than male homosexuality. This may be partly because male homosexuality undermined the prevailing heterosexual concepts of masculinity established in a discourse dominated by men, thus challenging the very ‘heart of society’.

Prostitution: a blind spot

The Church’s attitude towards prostitution was highly ambivalent. While basically condemning its existence in the highest terms, the Church’s stance nevertheless gave rise to yet another dilemma. On the one hand, it wanted to confine sexual relations to within marriage. On the other, it saw repressed male sexuality as a threat to the ‘order of society’, believing that it caused young bachelors to turn their attention to unmarried virgins. Once more, the Church adopted a tried-and-tested tactic: if you can’t prevent something, you simply regulate it.

**Public bathhouses and brothels were often combined. 15th-century illustration.** Source gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque nationale de France

Thus, visits by single men to a ‘house of pleasure’ were condoned, although not exactly welcomed. But if you think that public disapproval was mainly directed against the young men in question, you would be mistaken. Censure was naturally aimed primarily – and if you were paying attention when we discussed the meaning ascribed to the person of Eve, you will know what is coming – at the prostitutes, who were said to seduce these ‘irrational, foolish young men’ .

Moving from criticism to a medical standpoint

There was no shortage of disapproving, often theological, voices expounding their views on ‘lascivious’ behaviour. Homosexuality often came in for criticism, but it was not alone in that. Extramarital sex, which was bound to come to light at the latest when an illegitimate child was conceived, was thoroughly stigmatised. Self-pleasuring was also off-limits since this seemingly did not directly serve reproduction. Conversely, the medical world saw masturbation, and the satisfaction of lust in general, as less of a problem. Physicians even claimed that the expulsion of bodily fluids helped balance the four ‘humours’ and maintain good health.

**Depiction of the sexual act in a medical manuscript, first half of the 15th century.** Source gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque nationale de France

Medical manuals, frequently written by doctors, midwives, clerics or lay persons, addressed topics such as sexual health, reproduction and the moral aspects of sexuality. For example, they recommended certain herbs or techniques for improving fertility or treating sexually transmitted diseases, although these recommendations were often still based on outdated notions of anatomy and physiology. However, as sexual activities were seldom written about without reference to the standpoint of moral theology, many of these handbooks included detailed instructions on how to satisfy one’s sexual desire without coming into conflict with the religious angle, thus spanning the gap between medicine and religion.

There's no smoke without fire

The strict system of rules and social condemnation is bound to have had an impact on individual lives. But we must ask ourselves this: when in the history of humanity has every single person ever stuck to the rules? By virtue of their very existence, various surviving sources point to a broader spectrum of practices in real life. ‘Penitential books’, for example, were a kind of catalogue detailing the offences and setting out the penalties for each. One such book from 6th-century Ireland states that: “A husband whose wife has lain with another man must not share his bed with his spouse again until she has done the prescribed penance, namely one full year of penance. Likewise, a wife may not seek to share a bed with her husband if he has lain with another woman until he too has done the same penance.”

Depiction of adultery from Der Renner (The Runner or Courier) by Hugo von Trimberg, 1468. — **Depiction of adultery from *Der Renner* by Hugo von Trimberg, 1468.** e-codices / Fondation Martin Bodmer

A wide range of pictorial illustrations of adultery, a sin incurring severe punishment, also exist. Although many are moralising and judgemental in tone, they appear to verify that adultery was part of everyday life. In addition to strict regulations, all manner of erotic or obscene content has come down to us from the Middle Ages. For example, the badges showing crowned vulva and winged phalluses, and even ‘indecent’ stories that served as entertainment. We are surprised today by how explicit the content of such texts is, like this fabliau, a ‘Schwank’ or comic tale, by Jean Bodel: “So it came about that the lady suppressed the thoughts and desires that she harboured towards him; she fell asleep in disappointment and anger. The lady dreamed a dream: she was at an annual fair, the likes of which you never did hear! For every table, stall, booth and shop [...] was selling not grey or coloured furs, or bolts of linen or woollen cloth [...]. Only testicles and cocks were on display! In wild profusion: [...] You could get a good one for thirty sous, and a nice, well-formed one for twenty sous. And there were even cocks for poor people: you could buy a small one for ten sous or for nine or eight. They were being sold separately and in bulk: the biggest and best were the most expensive and most closely watched over.”

Between rigid ideals and lived experience

Even though we can no longer peek into medieval bedchambers ourselves, sources like the penitential books and erotic literature furnish us with tales that are far removed from the rigid sexual norms propagated by the Church. In the end, it is clear-cut: the very existence of criticism and explicit rules provides a clear indication of real-life practice – what would be their purpose otherwise? In the Middle Ages, Christian theology orchestrated a struggle between virtuous chastity and sinful lust. As the Church saw it, chastity ought to triumph and bring order to an otherwise unchaste world. But everyday life tells a different story: the Middle Ages were neither exceptionally prudish, nor exceptionally lustful. Sexuality was practiced within marriage, in moderation, in bed, between heterosexuals and with the woman playing a passive role, but also out of wedlock, in brothels, without moderation, between homosexuals, with women riding on top of men – and much more besides.

**Not everyone will follow the rigid commandments – either in the Middle Ages or in the modern world.** Wikimedia

Sex as a human preoccupation

Our attempts to get to grips with sexuality seem timeless – even though our views and emphases change throughout the ages. The question arises: Why is it always made a topic for discussion, something to be defined, standardised and regulated? People have a tendency to interpret, evaluate or simply cultivate their bodily processes – be that digestion, the intake of food or reproduction. The reasons are no doubt many and varied: political, religious and philosophical aspirations, claims to power, social controls or quite simply an attempt to differentiate ourselves from other creatures. Whether past or present, we all have at least one thing in common: people have made sex the object of their culture.

coveted. cared for. martyred. Bodies in the Middle Ages

15.03.2024 14.07.2024 / National Museum Zurich

There were conflicting perspectives of the human body during the Middle Ages: it was glorified, suppressed, cared for and chastised. The exhibition features many loaned exhibits from within and outside Switzerland to explore how the human body was viewed during the Middle Ages from a cultural history perspective, thereby also raising some questions about how we perceive the human body today.

More of: Bodies in the Middle Ages Middle Ages Religion Culture

Further posts

Sport in the Middle Ages

Michael Jucker 21.03.2024 The word sport conjures up images of modern sporting pursuits, such as football, cycling, rugby and skiing. But what about during the fondly remembered Middle Ages? Did sport exist back then and, if so, how did it compare to the modern competitions held on the territory now known as Switzerland?

Men and women participating in a race at Augsburg shooting festival in 1509, illustration in ‘Kriegsbuch u. a. Über Schützen- und Turnierwesen’ (war book about shooting events and tournaments i.a.), circa 1570.

A scene of racy bathing pleasure as a social critique

Barbara Basting 28.12.2023 The Reformation brought stricter social mores to many places in Europe, and artists had to adapt if they didn’t want to lose commissions. But these social mores were not popular with everyone – as revealed by this painting by Hans Bock in Basel’s Kunstmuseum.

At time of painting, a picture for somewhere private: Hans Bock the Elder, ‘The Baths at Leuk’, 1597.

Risen from the dead

Thomas Weibel 03.11.2021 At the Marian shrine of Oberbüren (Canton of Bern), the medieval Catholic Church offered some very special services: children who were stillborn or had died at birth were briefly brought back to life so that they could be baptised and then properly buried.

This is what the Marian shrine in Oberbüren may have looked like: led by altar boys with cross and banners, and clergymen in surplices, the faithful move forward in procession. Diebold Schilling, Eidgenössische Chronik.