**View of Haarlem with Bleaching Fields, by Jacob van Ruisdael, c. 1670/1675.** Kunsthaus Zürich

How the linen trade brought wealth to Europe

Linen production and trading was once the livelihood of many people in Europe, especially in eastern Switzerland. A famous landscape painting from the Netherlands in Kunsthaus Zürich tells a tale of global trade routes and mutual dependence.

Barbara Basting

Barbara Basting worked as a cultural editor and currently heads the visual arts division in the City of Zurich’s Culture Department.

View of Haarlem with Bleaching Fields (c. 1670) by Jacob Isackszoon van Ruisdael (1628-1682) is one of my favourite paintings. This was doubtless initially through sheer chance – and the appeal of Ruisdael’s name. The Dutch painter is known for his depictions of everyday themes. His works achieved widespread acclaim during his lifetime and were included in many prominent museum collections. His posthumous fame is also due to his popularity among prominent figures from the worlds of art and literature, including Füssli and Goethe. Ruisdael only covered relatively few subjects, which sold well. His wooded landscapes with waterfalls are famous, as are the many portraits of his hometown Haarlem with its characteristic linen-bleaching fields. 'View of Haarlem with Bleaching Fields' on display at Kunsthaus Zürich is one of his standout works. The billowing cumulus clouds immediately attract the eye. Ruisdael devotes about two-thirds of the painting, which is fairly small, to the cloud formations and the bright, distant sky as it only appears when near the sea. The elevation of the dunes in front of Haarlem captures the bird’s eye view of urban areas that was popular at the time.

Ruisdael’s trademark lies in the composition of his work. He contrasts the right-angled linen rows with the round cloud shapes. Together with the pond and its uneven sand banks, they reflect the light from a break in the cloud cover. This gives a dynamic link between earth and sky as the two dominant spheres and components of the work. Two worlds each with their own forces and rules while existentially connected. This, together with the symbolism of the pure white linen, has given rise to religious interpretations. Ruisdael actually had something of a penchant for exquisite light displays, using spray, a corn field or a birch log as a backdrop, in addition to bleached linen. These features all contribute to the aesthetic appeal of Ruisdael’s work. But this particular painting also tells us a lot. It shows aspects of society as it was then, for example the ideological and economic context with the workers tending to the linen. The linen-bleaching process is at the centre of the painting, a reference to a big part of Europe’s economic past. The Netherlands established itself as the economic engine room of Europe following independence from the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs in the 17th century. The country’s liberal constitution and, most of all, religious freedom bore fruit as persecuted protestants came from Flanders ready to apply their skills. The navy was another key factor, and the role it played in the Netherlands’ pending dominance of the seas. However, snow-white, quality linen was not de rigueur on Dutch sailing vessels. The main benefit of the product was its value as a commodity in the emerging triangular colonial trade.

**Dutch merchant ships at anchor, Willem van de Velde the Younger, 1658.** Mauritshuis

Few people realise nowadays just how important the linen trade used to be in Europe. It dates back as far as the 13th century with the cultivation of the flax plant, which only really requires rainwater in Europe and was often used as an intercrop. The production, i.e. spinning and weaving, can be done on a small scale and farmers initially made their own linen in the winter. In the days when the alternatives were wool and hemp, linen clothing was in demand, particularly in warmer climes. The expansion of the linen trade led to the development of quality standards. According to historian Philipp Rösner, entire regions of Europe were dedicated to the production and distribution of linen from the 16th century, especially in southern Germany, where the mighty House of Fugger in Augsburg derived much of its wealth from the linen trade, but also Silesia, Scotland, Ireland and Switzerland. Were it not for the linen industry, their commercial past would have taken a different path. St. Gallen gradually established itself as an economic centre, taking over the number one spot from Constance from the mid-15th century.

Linen strips laid out to bleach in front of St. Gallen city for display in 1545. — Linen strips laid out to bleach outside St. Gallen's city walls in 1545. The names of areas in St. Gallen such as *“Bleicheli”* or *“Kreuzbleiche”* (“Bleiche” is bleach in German) serves as a reminder of when the city was a textile centre. Wikimedia

The rise of St. Gallen was based on a guild system. This system separated production and distribution as well as providing sophisticated regulation similar to articles of association. The linen weavers, mainly farmers working from home, were controlled to a degree by a type of brokering system, of which a key element was the “Leinwandschau” where merchants could display their wares. Brokers defined quality standards for these events, which were reflected in the pricing.

**St. Gallen linen merchant Claus Gugger standing proudly by his merchandise rated G for “good”. The painting was hung at the *“Leinwandschau”* venue until 1874.** Kulturmuseum St. Gallen

Linen was transported from St. Gallen via different ports, Venice, Genoa or Antwerp for example, to northern Europe, northern Africa and even Asia. The merchants accepted spices, edible delicacies, jewellery and silk in return. Refined linen (via the “Bleaching Fields” portrayed by van Ruisdael) was key to enhancing the value of the product. It is a laborious photochemical process and cities or towns kept fields free for linen bleaching. Linen rolls of up to 80 metres were laid out on these fields. St. Gallen was no different, an unknown painter captured the bleaching stage of linen completion. The comparatively plain presentation was designed more for advertising than to attract refined art lovers.

Painting of the linen finishing process from the mid-17th century. On the right, the cloths are being boiled and crushed. On the left are other operations, such as moistening, laying out, stretching and folding. The *“Bleichemeister”* (person supervising the bleaching) monitors the proceedings from the middle of the picture. Kulturmuseum St. Gallen

The Haarlem bleaching fields enjoyed an outstanding international reputation through a refined processing system and were the powerhouse of the local economy in Ruisdael’s day. Linen from the “Haarlemmer bleek” was a luxury product. “Our own linen cloths are not nearly as white as the Dutch ones”, as written in an article entitled “Bleaching linen and yarn” in the Grisons weekly publication “Der Mannigfaltige” from 1778. The article goes on to speculate about why that could be: “The Dutch air is much more moist than elsewhere due to the proximity of the sea and all the water in the canals and throughout the country”. In Haarlem, the bleachers added potash, cow dung or the readily available buttermilk, in which the fabric was soaked for weeks.

A bleacher at work. He is using a “Güte”, a special type of shovel to spread the water from the ditch up to several metres over the textiles. Caspar Luyken, after Jan Luyken, 1694. — **A bleacher at work. He is using a *“Güte”*, a special type of shovel to spread the water from the ditch up to several metres over the textiles. Caspar Luyken, after Jan Luyken, 1694.** Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

Linen was exported from all over Europe to Haarlem for the town’s trademark white finish. Some of the linen strips portrayed in Ruisdael’s painting may even have come from St. Gallen. In any case, his painting portrays a major cog in the European economic and logistical network, one in which Switzerland acted early to secure its position. The establishing of production and distribution infrastructure was another seminal development in the linen trade, as it enabled expansion from Europe all over the world.

With the city in the background, you can see twelve representatives of professions involved in the linen trade – from the salesman at the top to the cellarman responsible for producing the barrels to transport the material. — This painting captures the importance of the linen trade for St. Gallen: with the city in the background, you can see twelve representatives of professions involved in the linen trade – from the salesman at the top to the cellarman responsible for producing the barrels to transport the material. The *Bleichemeister* (person in charge of the bleaching) is in the middle dressed in colour. Kulturmuseum St. Gallen

Ironically, the colonial economy, having been instrumental in the growth of the linen trade, subsequently heralded its decline. This was partly due to growing competition from cotton, which was cheaper. The first cotton-linen blended fabric was produced in northeast England from 1730. The expansion of the cotton industry increased demand for slaves. It also impacted India’s position as a leading cotton producer. Once the English had learned how to grow the plant independently, they imposed protective tariffs on India. In the 19th century, the technological revolution saw the emergence of the steamer and the spinning and weaving machines. The resulting exploitation and impoverishment of weavers throughout Europe, as acknowledged by Heinrich Heine in his famous poem “Die schlesischen Weber” (The Weavers of Silesia), saw widespread protest, attracting the attention of a young philosopher and economist called Karl Marx.

**Workers destroy a weaving loom in protest, 1812.** Wikimedia

Ruisdael’s painting can also be seen as a homage to the canvas on which it is presented: after the renaissance, canvas found increasing favour among artists at the expense of wood panels. The Haarlem bleaching fields also played a key role in the Netherlands’ affluence, which enabled a bona fide explosion in art, not to mention the financing of imposing church buildings, such as St. Bavo’s Cathedral shown on the horizon of Ruisdael’s painting. The “Golden Age” saw many painters launch their illustrious careers, Ruisdael’s contemporaries such as Rembrandt or Jan Vermeer, for example. Many opulent still life paintings from that time reflect the luxury of an affluent middle-class. Ruisdael’s landscape art approached these good times from another angle, allowing the middle class to gaze from their privileged position at the work underpinning their material comfort. There is a reason why the toiling seasonal workers are in miniature: the annoying details must not get in the way of the work’s aesthetic appeal.

**Workers in the bleaching fields are in miniature in Jacob van Ruisdael’s painting.** Kunsthaus Zürich

Ruisdael was not the only one to see the art inherent in bleaching: a good 200 years later, German impressionist Max Liebermann painted 'Bleaching on the Lawn' (1882). Liebermann had also seen the Dutch bleaching fields. However, his focus was not on the business side but more on the bleaching process, shortly before detergents like Persil (from 1907) became commonplace. Now all that remains of a once thriving linen industry are street and place names.

Bleaching on the Lawn, Max Liebermann, 1882. — *Bleaching on the Lawn*, Max Liebermann, 1882. Wallraf-Richartz-Museum

So, how did 'View of Haarlem with Bleaching Fields' end up in Zurich, a city that owes its modern prominence to the textile industry? Ruisdael’s painting of a chemical process that brought riches to the city of Haarlem was acquired in 1949 for the museum by ETH chemist and Nobel Prize winner Leopold Ružička. His sought-after chemical patent made him rich, mainly through its artificial fragrance and testosterone applications.

More of: Modern Age Economy Society Art

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