The cathedral – the town’s emblematic monument. The Münsterberg hill, Breisach.
The cathedral – the town’s emblematic monument. The Münsterberg hill, Breisach. Wikimedia / Wladyslaw Sojka

Breisach – a hotspot of European history

Located half-way between Freiburg and Colmar, the German town of Breisach (in the state of Baden-Württemberg) looms high above the Rhine, dominating the skyline. The town’s strategic location is inextricably linked to the chequered history of this key region of Europe.

Kurt Messmer

Kurt Messmer

Kurt Messmer (1946-2025) was a historian with a focus on history in public space.

How does geography impact history? Let’s take a closer look at Breisach to find out. Built on a hill 200 metres wide, 550 metres long and almost 40 metres high, it is a relic of the long-dormant volcanic mountain range of Kaiserstuhl, a unique feature between Basel and Karlsruhe. In the 17th century, the upper town proved to be an almost impregnable fortress, while the lower town was a bridge head on the Rhine, one of Europe’s most important waterways. But enough geography, let's start with a look back at 2,000 years of history.

The Romans on the Rhine

Rome is quite far away. It’s just under 700 Roman miles (or 1,000 kilometres) from the Tiber to Brisacum – as Breisach is called in Latin – and the journey involves crossing the Alps and other challenging terrain. In the summer of 369, Emperor Valentinian was on an inspection tour. He had just come from Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst in Aargau) and had seen a great deal, but couldn’t fail to be impressed as he approached the military camp on what is now the Münsterberg: a river with multiple arms and a vast, green alluvial plain, above which towered a dark grey volcanic rock. Higher up, behind a fortification wall, the façade of the main building of the Roman camp featured imposing arcades, luminous white contrasting with the brick red roof.
Main building of the Roman military camp in Breisach in the 4th century CE
The main building of the Roman military camp in Breisach in the 4th century CE may have looked something like this. The current Münster (cathedral) has stood on part of the foundations since the 12th century. Breisach municipal archives / Department of Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the University of Freiburg
This fortress made quite an impression, as did the fact that the Emperor was taking care of the border region personally. But the Roman Empire had passed its peak. The Romans had given up the Limes (fortification systems on the borders of the Roman Empire) in the 3rd century, and were back on the Rhine, as they had been 150 years previously. When the Roman legionaries fortified the Rhine border by order of Valentinian, they could not have known that only 30 years later, they would be withdrawn from the Rhine to defend Rome, marking a point of no return. Mass migration changed the world, which at this time meant Europe.

Signs of a rupture of civilisation

Change is reflected in what people eat and drink. Traces found in earthenware vessels (amphoras) hint at what the Romans in Breisach enjoyed: olive oil and a popular fish sauce from Spain, and wine from southern Italy and north Africa. But the advancing Alemanni were not interested in any of that.
The Alemanni as part of the Carolingian Empire, circa 800.
The Alemanni as part of the Carolingian Empire, circa 800. Breisach was no longer in the border region, the Rhine no longer marked the border, and Alsace became Alemannic, which still has a linguistic impact today. However, this influence was steadily declining. In Switzerland, the border between Alemannia and Burgundy still ran along the Aare at the time. Historischer Atlas der Schweiz / © Marco Zanoli, Verlag Hier und Jetzt
After the withdrawal of the Romans, Breisach seemed to disappear for around 500 years – in written sources at least. And it wasn’t the only place to have ‘lost its history’. As in other places, archaeological digs rather than documentary evidence suggest continual settlement, and a massive rupture of civilisation in slow motion. The pit houses from the early 12th century, of which there is evidence on the Münsterberg, suggest an austere life.
Reconstruction of a medieval pit house on the Münsterberg in Breisach, after 1100.
Reconstruction of a medieval pit house on the Münsterberg in Breisach, after 1100. Three such pit houses are the earliest known buildings in Breisach from the Middle Ages. A far cry from the comfort of Roman towns: no running water, no baths, no heating, no mosaic floors, no temples, and no theatres. Museum für Stadtgeschichte Breisach am Rhein
Over time, Breisach became one of the most important towns on the Upper Rhine, and in 1273 it became a free imperial town, with the right to build fortifications, hold markets, and mint coins. The town’s strategic location made it highly sought-after. Already in the late Middle Ages, power repeatedly changed hands, alternating between the Bishop of Basel and the houses of Hohenstaufen and Zähringen, before the Habsburgs ultimately seized control.

The cathedral: symbol of Christian rule

There was nothing holy about the Holy Roman Empire. ‘Christian’ would be more fitting. This grandiose official title represented a political agenda. Since Charlemagne around 800 and Otto I. in the 10th century, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire sought to revive the Roman Empire (Renovatio imperii), and of course to exercise the absolute power it entailed.

The Christian influence was particularly evident in church building. Breisach probably already had a church in the Carolingian era. The foundation stone of the current cathedral was laid around 1185. There were still building materials from the Roman era found on the site in the 12th century. So the conditions were ideal.

But cathedrals aren’t built in a day. The cathedral in Breisach is the fruit of around 300 years of labour. In the Middle Ages, church building was a very long-term project.
Continuity of history: the cathedral in Breisach, built on the foundations of the Roman military camp.
Continuity of history: the cathedral in Breisach, built on the foundations of the Roman military camp. Museum für Stadtgeschichte Breisach am Rhein / Führer durch die Dauerausstellung

Breisach: one of the greatest fortresses in Europe

After the construction of the cathedral was completed around 1500, the commercial town of Breisach was transformed into a mighty fortress, equipped with 152 cannons. With its garrison of 3,000 soldiers, Breisach was dubbed the ‘key to the Empire’, and as a stronghold, was almost unconquerable. During the Thirty Years’ War, it held out for months against a siege, only surrendering when famine took hold. Once again, the town changed hands, and was transferred from the Habsburgs to France, a transition which was sealed in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
Breisach as a French fortified town on German soil, pre-1700 (model).
Breisach as a French fortified town on German soil, pre-1700 (model). A huge and sophisticated defence system made the upper town, atop the Münsterberg, but also the lower town, in the plain, an almost impregnable base. This elaborate bastion provided protection from attacks from the Freiburg region. On the upper edge of the image, is the Rhine and the Alsace bank. Museum für Stadtgeschichte Breisach am Rhein
The six decades of French rule after 1648 were the age of the Sun King and his military engineer, Vauban (1633–1707). While Louis XIV called Breisach ‘mon bijou’, his interest in the town was purely military. The town had 13 barracks. No expense was spared in the huge project of expanding the fortress, which lasted two decades. The barracks built outside of the town walls to house the workers became a new neighbourhood in the space of a few years. The work was almost completed when the Sun King visited the town in 1681.
The Rheintor (Rhine gate) in Breisach, built around 1675 based on plans by Vauban.
The Rheintor (Rhine gate) in Breisach, built around 1675 based on plans by Vauban. It is the only remaining structure that attests to the town’s French history. Baroque architecture is theatrical, even when it’s on the triumphant façade of a town gate. The crown sitting atop a fleur-de-lys coat of arms in the gable symbolises French sovereignty. These elements are echoed in the niche above the arch. Spread out over the whole façade, gods and figures from Greek and Roman mythology project the power of the Sun King. Wikimedia / Ingo Schlösser
During the French period, the square to the north of the cathedral underwent another transformation. The former site of the fortified camp, which became a cemetery in the Middle Ages, was turned into a parade ground under the Sun King.
former cemetery of Breisach Cathedral
No more peaceful eternal rest. In the 17th century, French soldiers paraded on the former cemetery of Breisach Cathedral. The young lime tree, propped up by a stake in the foreground, is difficult to spot in front of the imposing lime in the centre of the square, yet it still became a symbol of hope. Kurt Messmer
An absolute monarch doesn’t have absolute power. During the Nine Years’ War, Louis XIV had to concede to half of Europe. In 1697, Breisach changed hands once again. As in the late Middle Ages, the whole of Breisgau, including Freiburg, became Austrian again.

Neuf-Brisach: a town built from nothing

Barely had the French troops retreated to the left bank of the Rhine following the defeat than the Sun King had a new town and fortification built, just four kilometres away, on French soil, to replace the lost ‘old’ Breisach. Once again, the building work was overseen by Vauban. During his life, he had 33 new fortified towns constructed and around 300 old ones rebuilt. Neuf-Brisach, with its star-shaped octagonal layout, became his most famous work.
Neuf-Brisach: rationality turned to stone. Contractor: Louis XIV., architect: Vauban, construction period: 1699-1703.
Neuf-Brisach: rationality turned to stone. Contractor: Louis XIV., architect: Vauban, construction period: 1699-1703. Wikimedia
We know what a town looks like that has evolved historically. Around 1700, Vauban showed what it meant to build a town from scratch, in the shape of Neuf-Brisach. It’s very simple. In the centre, a huge, rectangular parade ground, surrounded by government and administrative buildings. The octagonal layout is ideally suited to a fortification in three parts. The urban area is like a chess board, divided into 48 blocks, 34 of which provide housing for 4,000 inhabitants. Along the town walls are barracks – an outward and inward manifestation of power. The streets are dead straight and cross at right angles. The four town gates each lead to a road going to Colmar, Strasbourg, Basel and Belfort, respectively. And there you have it – the model town.

Between a rock and a hard place

Was that the last handover of power in Breisach? Far from it. In 1703, the same year that Neuf-Brisach was completed as a fortified town to replace the lost ‘old’ Breisach, Louis XIV reconquered the original town of Breisach. To this end, two makeshift bridges were built, as the only solid bridge between Basel and Strasbourg had been demolished under the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. The second French occupation would only last a few years. Following another war, the fortified town of Breisach again fell to Austria in 1715. Crazy times, and it didn’t stop there.

Things were about to pivot again. Amid the constant tensions with France, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria wanted to avoid an important stronghold falling into enemy hands. For centuries, no expense had been spared when it came to reinforcing Breisach’s defences. In 1741, the fortifications were completely dismantled as a way of avoiding any potential hostility with the French, making Breisach an insignificant rural town again. The town was promptly reconquered by the French in 1744, and barely put up any resistance. But the occupiers withdrew again after just a year and a half. A mere flash in the pan in power-political terms.

Breisach then enjoyed half a century of peace. Until the outbreak of the French Revolution. At first, the talk was of ‘unrest’ but a political storm soon engulfed the whole of Europe. In the War of the First Coalition, Prussia and Austria joined forces against France. In 1793, Breisach was once again conquered by French troops and totally destroyed.

Yesterday at 6pm, bombs and burning cannonballs rained down on Breisach. In the space of less than half an hour the whole town was in flames. The fire raged all night. Today a pontoon bridge was supposed to be built on the Rhine to invade Breisgau.

Neue Zürcher Zeitung, number 77, 25 September 1793
But the drama was far from over. Breisach, which by this time was part of Austria, would be briefly occupied by French troops on two more occasions. The situation only calmed down in 1806 when Breisgau and Breisach became part of the newly-established Grand Duchy of Baden, a liberal stronghold in the 19th century.

A border town no more

In 1848–1849, Liberals were fighting for freedoms all over Europe, failing everywhere except in Switzerland. The failure of the liberal revolution in Baden led to Breisach being occupied by Prussian troops for three years. A generation later, in 1870–1871, Bismarck exploited the Franco-Prussian war to unify Germany. Breisach was shelled unsuccessfully by the French for nine days. The cathedral still bears the scars of this shelling. After the German victory, Breisach was no longer a border town. France had to hand over Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.
‘BOMBARDEMENT / 4 NOV. / 1870’. Pillar on the south side of Breisach Cathedral with bullet marks and inscription.
‘BOMBARDEMENT / 4 NOV. / 1870’. Pillar on the south side of Breisach Cathedral with bullet marks and inscription. Kurt Messmer
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 showed that at the time, wars were still military campaigns. Just under fifty years later, the Germans would have liked to take the same approach in the First World War. But things didn’t work out that way.

A (demilitarised) border town once again

In Germany, in August 1914, everyone thought the war would be over by autumn. However, the anticipated military campaign turned into trench warfare. ‘Industrialised killing’ took hold. It was as much a battle of materiel as a battle of men.

The Armistice gave the Germans 15 days to withdraw from Alsace and Lorraine. Many German troops crossed the Rhine at Breisach. Defeat was evident, the outlook ominous.
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France in 1918
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France in 1918. The Rhine once again marked the border, and Breisach was once again a border town. To prevent another attack by Germany, a 50km-wide demilitarised zone was put in place on the right bank in 1918. The location of Freiburg, which is a good 20 kilometres away from the Rhine and from Breisach, gives us an idea of the dimensions of this demilitarised zone. Wikipedia / Ziegelbrenner

Breisach, a reflection of Germany

The people of Breisach faced the same issues that beset the whole of Germany at the time: unemployment, poverty, a housing shortage, inflation. Ahead of the German parliamentary elections in March 1933, the National Socialists held a torchlit procession in Breisach and became the strongest party. The Nazi salute and enforced conformity became the order of the day. The democratically-elected mayor was taken into ‘protective custody’ and replaced by a Nazi. Soon after, Jews and dissidents began to be persecuted. On 10 November 1938 – Kristallnacht – the synagogue was burned down. Jewish businesses were looted, and Jews were deported to Dachau and Gurs. In 1940, Breisach was officially ‘free of Jews’.

Militarily, the town was not directly under threat until the summer of 1944. Everything changed with the advance of the Allies and the retreat of the German troops. It was time to draft the ‘Volkssturm’ (people’s militia), with all remaining men aged between 14 and 60 being called up. The civilian population was evacuated on a number of occasions, and Breisach was bombed 130 times.
Breisach: left, circa 1910, view from Münsterplatz
1946, view from the southern tower of the cathedral to the southeast
Breisach: left, circa 1910, view from Münsterplatz to the lower town and the Kaiserstuhl; right, 1946, view from the southern tower of the cathedral to the southeast, lower town and market square. During the war, 85% of houses were destroyed. Stadtarchiv Breisach am Rhein
Three weeks before the end of the war, there were around 50 people left in Breisach. French tanks had shot through the barricade of the Kupfertor, one of the town gates, and were about to advance on the town. Just then, merchant Albert Ziehler appeared, bearing a white flag. He approached the French tanks and explained in French that there were no more German troops in the town and that the streets were not mined. The French placed Albert Ziehler and his white flag on the bonnet of a Jeep and drove into the town leading the column of tanks. Not a single shot was fired. Albert Ziehler, a brave man who should have got his own monument.

En route to Europe!

The war was over. The town was destroyed. There was nothing left. No hospital, no town hall, no school. But lessons were still taking place, in the waiting room at the station.
Call for donations for Breisach’s schools, 1949.
Call for donations for Breisach’s schools, 1949. Museum für Stadtgeschichte Breisach am Rhein
The European Movement organised referendums in various towns and cities in 1950. Breisach was chosen as the first one. The question on the ballot paper was:

Are you in favour of the abolition of political and economic borders within Europe and the joining of European peoples to form a federal state? Yes/​No

Wording of the voluntary referendum, prompted by the European Movement.
Turnout on 9 July 1950 was over 87%, and almost 96% voted ‘yes’. Fifty years later, in the year 2000, this decision was memorably celebrated. “As a sign of German-French friendship and as a way of building bridges at the heart of Europe”, Breisach was twinned with Neuf-Brisach and this link was reinforced with a Europe monument on the Münsterplatz.

In a nutshell

Geography and history
Breisach is a perfect example of how historical developments are shaped by geography. But that doesn’t mean that the town’s fate was predetermined. Breisach’s history could also have turned out differently. A geographical if doesn’t have to be followed by a historical then. History is intractable, there’s nothing mechanical about it, no logic.

Individual and collective
Human beings are individuals but they would be lost without a community. History is full of collectives: the Romans, the Germanic peoples, the Germans, the French. But remember that in 1945, Albert Ziehler approached the column of French tanks, bearing a white flag. We are impressed by collectives, and moved by individuals.

Outcome and conclusion
Do people learn from history? Yes, of course they do. How else would 96% of the electorate in Breisach have voted in favour of a European federal state just a few years after the Second World War? And how else could we explain the German-French friendship between Breisach and Neuf-Brisach following three wars between Germany and France in the space of 70 years, in 1870, 1914 and 1940? But who do we mean by people? If all people, communities and governments learned from history, everywhere and all the time, the world would be quite a different place. The question of whether history is the teacher of the people can only ever be answered on a case-by-case basis, and never in such a sweeping way. In 1951, just six years after the horrors of the Second World War, former adversaries Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany and Italy founded the European Coal and Steel Community. It became one of the cornerstones of the current European Union built on human rights. And its most significant achievement? Peace.

Published on: 28.11.2024

Modified on: 29.10.2025

URL: https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/2024/11/breisach-a-hotspot-of-european-history/

More of: ProtohistoryClassical antiquityMiddle AgesModern Age20th / 21st centuryPoliticsWar/battleCulture

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